Language as a Local Practice addresses the questions of language, locality and practice as a way of moving forward in our understanding of how language operates as an integrated social and spatial activity. By taking each of these three elements ? language, locality and practice ? and exploring how they relate to each other, Language as a Local Practice opens up new ways of thinking about language. It questions assumptions about languages as systems or as countable entities, and suggests instead that language emerges from the activities it performs. To look at language as a practice is to view language as an activity rather than a structure, as something we do rather than a system we draw on, as a material part of social and cultural life rather than an abstract entity. Language as a Local Practice draws on a variety of contexts of language use, from bank machines to postcards, Indian newspaper articles to fish-naming in the Philippines, urban graffiti to mission statements, suggesting that rather than thinking in terms of language use in context, we need to consider how language, space and place are related, how language creates the contexts where it is used, how languages are the products of socially located activities and how they are part of the action. Language as a Local Practice will be of interest to students on advanced undergraduate and post graduate courses in Applied Linguistics, Language Education, TESOL, Literacy and Cultural Studies.
Pennycook, A.D. 2007,
Global Englishes and Transcultural Flows, 1, Routledge, London & New York.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2001, Critical applied linguistics: a critical introduction, 1, Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, USA.
Pennycook, A.D. 1998, English and the Discourses of Colonialism, 1, Routledge, New York.
Pennycook, A.D. 1994,
The Cultural Politics of English as in International Language, 1, Longman, London, New York.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2011, 'Global Englishes' in Ruth Wodak, Barbara Johnstone, Paul Kerswill (eds), The SAGE Handbook of Sociolinguistics, SAGE, London, pp. 513-525.
Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'English and globalization' in Janet Maybin and Joan Swann (eds), The Routledge Companion to English Language Studies, Routledge, Abingdon, pp. 113-121.
Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'Nationalism, Identity and Popular Culture' in Nancy Hornberger, Sandra McKay (eds), Sociolinguistics and Language Education, Multilingual Matters, UK, pp. 62-86.
Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'Popular Cultures, Popular Languages and Global Indentities' in Nikolas Coupland (eds), The Handbook of Language and Globalization, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp. 592-607.
Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'Rethinking Origins and Localization in Global Englishes' in Mukul Saxena, Tope Omoniyi (eds), COntending with Globalization in World Englishes, Multilingual Matters, UK, pp. 196-210.
Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'Spatial Narrations: Graffscapes and City Souls' in Adam Jaworski and Crispin Thurlow (eds), Semiotic Landscapes, Continuum International Publishing Group, New York, pp. 137-150.
Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'The Future of Englishes: one, many or none?' in Andy Kirkpatrick (eds), The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes, Routledge, New York, pp. 673-688.
Pennycook, A.D. & Mitchell, A.W. 2009, 'Hip Hop as dusty foot philosophy: Engaging locality' in H Samy Alim, Awad Ibrahim, A Pennycook (eds),
Global Linguistic Flows: Hip Hop cultures, youth identities, and the politics of language, Routledge, New York, USA, pp. 25-42.
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View description>> When asked what he means by the Dusty Foot Philosopher (the title of his recent CD, which received a 2006 Juno Award for Rap Recording of the Year, and was nominated for the inaugural Polaris Music Prize), Somali-Canadian MC K'Naan explains that this is both how he sees himselfand a broader image of global representation. When images of Africa are shown on charity television (the most common means by which people view Africa, he suggests), the camera always kind of pans to the feet, and the feet are always dusty from these kids. What they're trying to portray is a certain bias connected to their own historical reasoning, and what I saw though instead, was that that child with the dusty feet himself is not a beggar, and he's not an undignified struggler, but he's the dusty foot philosopher. He articulates more than the cameraman can imagine, at that point in his life. But he has nothing; he has no way to dream, even. He just is who he is. (K'Naan Interview, April 25, 2004)1
Pennycook, A.D. 2009, 'Is dialogue possible? Anti-intellectualism, relativism, politics and linguistic ideologies' in M S Wong and S Canagarajah (eds),
Christian and critical English language educators in dialogue, Routledge, New York, USA, pp. 60-65.
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Pennycook, A.D. 2009, 'Plurilithic Englishes: Towards a 3D model' in Kumiko Murata & Jenifer Jenkins (eds),
Gobal Englishes in Asian Contexts, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, UK, pp. 194-207.
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Pennycook, A.D. 2009, 'Refashioning and performing identities in global hip-hop' in N Couland and A Jaworski (eds),
The new sociolinguistics reader, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, pp. 326-340.
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Pennycook, A.D. 2008, 'Critical applied linguistics and language education' in Stephen May & Nancy Hornberger (eds),
Encyclopedia of Language and Education, Springer, New York, USA, pp. 169-182.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2008, 'Language-free Linguistics and Linguistics-free Languages' in Ahmar Mahboob and Naomi Knight (eds),
Questioning Linguistics, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, UK, pp. 18-31.
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UTSiResearch Thompson, C.H. & Pennycook, A.D. 2008, 'Intertextuality in the transcultural contact zone' in Howard, Rebecca Moore and Robillard, Amy (eds),
Pluralizing Plagiarism: Identities, contexts, pedagogies, Boynton/Cook, Potsmouth, NH, USA, pp. 124-139.
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UTSiResearch Makoni, S. & Pennycook, A.D. 2007, 'Disinventing and reconstituting languages' in Sinfree Makoni & Alastair Pennycook (eds),
Disinventing and reconstituting languages, Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, UK, pp. 1-41.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2007, 'ELT and colonialism' in Cummins, J & Davison, C (eds),
International handbook of English language teaching, Springer, New York, USA, pp. 13-24.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2007, 'The myth of English as an international language' in Sinfree Makoni & Alastair Pennycook (eds),
Disinventing and reconstituting languages, Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, UK, pp. 90-115.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2006, 'Critical applied linguistics' in Berns M (eds),
Encyclopedia of language and Linguistics: 2nd Edition, Elsevier, Ansterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 283-290.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2006, 'Postmodernism in language policy' in Ricento, Thomas (eds),
An Introduction to Language Policy, Blackwell, Oxford, UK, pp. 60-76.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2006, 'Uma linguistica aplicada transressiva' in Luiz Paulo da Moita Lopes (eds),
Por Uma Linguistica Aplicada Indisciplinar, Parabola Editorial, Sao Paulo, Brazil, pp. 67-84.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2004, 'Critical applied linguistics' in Savies A; Elder C (eds),
The Handbook of Applied Linguistics, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK, pp. 784-807.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2004, 'Critical moments in a TESOL praxicum' in
Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 327-345.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2004, 'Os limites da linguistica' in Favio Lopes da Silva; Kanavillil Rajagopalan (eds),
A linguistica que nos faz FALHAR, Parabola Editorial, Sao Paula spain, pp. 39-47.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2003, 'Beyond Homogeny and Heterogeny' in Christian Mair (eds),
The Politics of English as a World Language, Rodopi, Amsterdam, pp. 3-17.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2003, 'Linguistica Aplicada pos-Ocidental' in Maria Jose, RF coracini, Ernesto S Bertoldo (eds),
O Desejo Da Teoria E A Contingencia Da Pratica, Mercado de Letras, Brasil, pp. 21-59.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2002, 'Language and linguistics/siscourse and disciplinarity' in BarronB; Bruce N; Nunan D (eds),
Knowledge and discourse: Towards an ecology of language, Longman/Pearson, Harlow, UK, pp. 13-27.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2002, 'Language policy and docile bodies: Hong Kong and governmentality' in Tollefson JW (eds),
Language Policies in Education: Critical IssuesLanguage Policies in Education: Critical IssuesLanguage Policies in Education: Critical IssuesLanguage Policies in Education: Critical IssuesLanguage Policies in Education: Critical Issues, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, USA, pp. 91-110.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2001, 'Lessons from colonial language policies' in Gonzalez RD (eds), Language Ideologies, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, USA, pp. 195-220.
Pennycook, A.D. 2001, 'Towards a postcultural curriculum' in Renandya WA; Sunga NR (eds), Language curriculum and instruction in multicultural societies, SEAMEO, Singapore, pp. 80-96.
Pennycook, A.D. 2000, 'English,politics,ideology:from colonial celebration to postcolonial peerformativity' in Ricento T (eds), Ideology, Politics & Language Policies, John Benjamins, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 107-120.
Pennycook, A.D. 2000, 'Language, ideology & hindsight: lessons from colonial language policies' in Ricento T (eds), Ideology, Politics & Language Policies, John Benjamins, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp. 49-66.
Pennycook, A.D. 2000, 'The social politics & the cultural politics of language classrooms' in Kelly Hall J; Eggington W (eds), The Sociopolitics of Language Teaching, Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, UK, pp. 89-103.
Ramanathan, V. & Pennycook, A.D. 2008, 'Talking across time: Postcolonial challenges to language, history and difference' in Suresh Raval, G M Mehta, Sitanshu Yashaschandra (eds),
Forms of knowledge in India: Critical Revaluations, Pencraft International, New Delhi, India, pp. 272-304.
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UTSiResearch Hazelrigg, A., Sayers, J. & Pennycook, A.D. 2003, 'Dialogues around "The concept of Method, Interested Knowledge, and the Politics of Language Teaching"' in Judy Sharkey & Karen E Johnson (eds), The TESOL Quarterly Dialogues, TESOL, Virginia, USA, pp. 19-34.
Layzer, C. & Pennycook, A.D. 2003, 'Dialogues around:Borrowing Others' woeds: Text, Ownership, Memory, and Plagiarism"' in Judy Sharkey & Karen E Johnson (eds), The TESOL Quarterly Dialogues, TESOL, Virginia, USA, pp. 75-86.
Otsuji, E. & Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'Metrolingualism: fixity, fluidity and language in flux',
International Journal of Multilingualism, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 240-254.
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View description>> By extending the notion of metroethnicity, this paper proposes the notion of metrolingualism, creative linguistic practices across borders of culture, history and politics. Metrolingualism gives us a way to move beyond current terms such as 'multilingualism' and 'multiculturalism'. It is a product of modern and often urban interaction, describing the ways in which people of different and mixed backgrounds use, play with and negotiate identities through language. The focus is not so much on language systems as on languages as emergent from contexts of interaction. Looking at data from workplaces where metrolingual language use is common, we show how the use of both fixed and fluid linguistic and cultural identities is part of the process of language use. The notion of metrolingualism gives us ways of moving beyond common frameworks of language, providing insights into contemporary, urban language practices, and accommodating both fixity and fluidity in its approach to language use.
Pennycook, A.D. 2010, 'Critical and Alternative Directions in Applied Linguistics',
Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 1-18.
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View description>> Critical directions in applied linguistics can be understood in various ways. The term critical as it has been used in critical applied linguistics, critical discourse analysis, critical literacy and so forth, is now embedded as part of applied linguistic work, adding an overt focus on questions of power and inequality to discourse analysis, literacy or applied linguistics more generally. In this paper I will argue, however, that although critical discourse analysis and critical literacy still make claims to a territory different from their `non-critical? counterparts, much of this work has become conventional and moribund. The use of the term `critical? (with its problematic claims and divisions) has perhaps reached saturation level. This is not to say, however, that the basic need to bring questions of power, disparity and difference to applied linguistics is any way diminished, but rather that we may need to look in alternative directions for renewal.
The global enterprise of English language teaching (ELT) ought to present the possibility of bringing millions of people into the global traffic of meaning. Yet it does not do so because global ELT is paradoxically viewed as a monolingual enterprise. Both the pedagogy that underpins much of this spread and the ways in which the global spread of English has been described and resisted emphasize English as a language that operates only in its own presence. Overlooked are the ways in which English always needs to be seen in the context of other languages, as a language always in translation. Yet if we wish to take global diversity seriously, we would do well to focus on semiodiversity (the diversity of meanings) as much as glossodiversity (the diversity of languages), and to do so by taking up a project of translingual activism as part of ELT. If students are to enter the global traffic of meaning, translation needs to become central to what we do.
In their introduction to this special edition of ARAL, Michael Clyne and Farzad Sharifian have laid out a number of the general concerns we need to consider when trying to grapple with the global spread of English. There is much of value in their proposal for a more symmetrical understanding of the pluricentricity of English; for a focus on cross-cultural/ intercultural communication, especially on pragmatic, discourse, and conceptual variation in English language classes; and for language policies that emphasise bilingualism and multilingualism. Their position nevertheless stops short in its exploration of the wider concerns raised by the gobal spread of English: While rightly critiquing the monolingual mindset that is blind to multilingualism and gives support to the use only of English, Clyne and Sharifian nevertheless fail to problematise the assumptions that underlie all these discussions around the global spread of English. It is not enough just to question monolingualism and argue for multilingualism, since both conceptions emerge from the same context of European-based thinking about language. As long as we still operate with the same epistemological framework of languages that emerged from the colonial/modernist context (Errington, 2008; Nakata, 2007), we will not be able to think our way out of the dilemmas posed by language and globalisation
Ramanathan, V. & Pennycook, A.D. 2008, 'Articulating identities: Communities, histories, migrations',
TESOL in Context, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 21-40.
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UTSiResearch Alim, H.S. & Pennycook, A.D. 2007, 'Global linguistic flows: Hip-hop culture(s), identities, and the politics of language education',
Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 89-100.
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View description>> People have to understand what you mean when you talk about Hip-Hop. Hip-Hop means the whole culture of the movement. When you talk about rap, you have to understand that rap is part of the Hip-Hop Culture. That means that emceeing is part of the Hip-Hop Culture. The Deejaying is part of the Hip-Hop Culture. The dressing, the languages are all part of Hip-Hop Culture. So is the break dancing, the b-boys and b-girls. How you act, walk, look and talk is all part of Hip Hop Culture. And the music is from whatever music that gives that grunt, that funk, that groove, that beat. That?s all part of Hip Hop. (Afrika Bambaataa, interviewed by Davey D [1996])
Pennycook, A.D. 2007, ''The rotation gets thick. The constraints get thin': Creativity, recontextualization, and difference',
Applied Linguistics, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 579-596.
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View description>> This paper explores the implications of looking at creativity in terms of repeated sameness rather than observable difference. Drawing on insights from hip-hop culture that focus on sampling as creativity, and looking in particular at philosophies of difference that make iterability and performativity central, this paper opens up a discussion of repetition, reenactment, and recontextualization as forms of creativity. A common approach to language and creativity draws on a very particular cultural and intellectual history that posits a core of human, cultural, or linguistic similarity, with creativity as marked divergence from the core. The alternative, or at least complementary, understanding discussed in this paper takes flow and difference as the norm, pointing to the need to account for how the previous expression of others is recontextualized, and suggesting that contemporary acts of digital sampling can be seen in relation to a parallel philosophy of creativity. An understanding of this flip-side of creativity, where difference is taken as a given and sameness needs to account for itself, has major implications for some of the ways we think about writing, learning, and language variation in applied linguistics.
Pennycook, A.D. 2007, 'Language, localization, and the real: Hip-hop and the global spread of authenticity',
Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 101-116.
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View description>> This article addresses the relationship between the call for authenticity, its relocalization in other contexts, and the use of English. Hip-hop forces us to confront some of the conflictual discourses of authenticity and locality, from those that insist that African American hip-hop is the only real variety and that all other forms are inauthentic deviations, to those that insist that to be authentic one needs to stick to one's "own" cultural and linguistic traditions. The global spread of hip-hop authenticity provides an example of the tension between a cultural dictate to keep it real and the processes that make this dependent on local contexts, languages, cultures, and understandings of the real. Looking at various contexts of localization, this article suggests that the horizons of significance that constitute what counts as locally real open up useful perspectives on the local and global use of languages. The multiple realities of global hip-hop challenge ortholinguistic practices and ideologies, relocating language in new ways that both reflect and produce local language practices.
Ramanathan, V. & Pennycook, A.D. 2007, 'Talking across time: Postcolonial challenges to language, history and difference',
Journal of Contemporary Thought, vol. 25, no. Summer, pp. 25-53.
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UTSiResearch Karmani, S. & Pennycook, A.D. 2005, 'Islam, English and 9/11',
Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 157-172.
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Publisher's site Makoni, S. & Pennycook, A.D. 2005, 'Disinventing and (Re) Constituting Languages',
Critical Inquiry in Language Studies: an International Journal, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 137-156.
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View description>> In this paper we argue that although the problematic nature of language construction has been acknowledged by a number of skeptical authors, including the recent claim in this journal (Reagan, 2004) that there is no such thing as English or any other language, this critical approach to language still needs to develop a broader understanding of the processes of invention. A central part of our argument, therefore, is that it is not enough to acknowledge that languages have been invented, nor that linguistic metalanguage constructs the world in particular ways; rather, we need to understand the interrelationships among metadiscursive regimes, language inventions, colonial history, language effects, alternative ways of understanding language, and strategies of disinvention and reconstitution. Any critical (applied) linguistic project that aims to deal with language in the contemporary world, however estimable its political intent may be, must also have ways of understanding the detrimental language effects it may engender unless it confronts the need for linguistic disinvention and reconstitution.
Pennycook, A.D. 2005, 'Performing the personal',
Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 297-304.
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Publisher's site In this paper I suggest that as educators we need to understand that the spaces and cultures our students inhabit are to be found not so much in predefinitions of cultural background or in studies of classrooms as cultural spaces as in the transcultural flows with which our students engage. Thus, my argument is not only that, as Singh and Doherty (2004) suggest, the flow of ?international? students turns many classrooms into ?global education contact zones? (p. 11), but also that the global flows of English and popular culture turn classrooms in many parts of the world into spaces of transcultural contact. Students can no longer be understood as located in a bounded time and space in and around their classrooms but rather are participants in a much broader set of transcultural practices. Taking the global culture of hip-hop as an example, with a particular focus on hip-hop in parts of East and Southeast Asia, I argue that with English increasingly becoming the medium of global transcultural exchange, we need to understand the relations between English, popular culture, education and identity, or the ways in which global Englishes become a shifting means of transcultural identity formation. What I want to suggest here, then, is that in order to be attentive to the politics of location in the global context, we need a pedagogy of flow.
Pennycook, A.D. & Makoni, S. 2005, 'The modern mission: The language effects of Christianity',
Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 137-155.
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View description>> Christian missionaries have played a crucial role not only in assisting past and current forms of colonialism and neocolonialism, not only in attacking and destroying other ways of being, but also in terms of the language effects their projects have engendered. The choices missionaries have made to use local or European languages have been far more than a mere choice of medium. On the one hand, missionary language projects continue to use and promote European languages, and particularly English, for Christian purposes. The use of English language teaching as a means to convert the unsuspecting English language learner raise profound moral and political questions about what is going on in English classrooms around the world. On the other hand, missionary linguists have played a particular role in the construction and invention of languages around the world. Of particular concern here are the ways in which language use, and understandings of language use, have been-and still are-profoundly affected by missionary projects. Bilingualism between indigenous languages and a metropolitan language, for example, was part of a conservative missionary agenda in which converting to Christianity was the inevitable process of being bilingual. The ongoing legacy of the language effects of Christianity is something that needs urgent attention.
Pennycook, A.D. 2004, 'Beyond plagiarism: transgressive and nontransgressive intertextuality',
Journal of Language, Identity and Education, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 171-193.
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Publisher's site Pennycook, A.D. 2004, 'Language policy and the ecological turn',
Language Policy, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 213-239.
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Publisher's site Drawing analogies with the crisis in understandings of culture that led to the development of cultural studies, I suggest in this article that a similar crisis in the understanding of language may give an important impetus to the development of language studies. Arguing for the need to rethink the notion of language as commonly formulated in linguistics and applied linguistics, I take up the notion of performativity as a way of thinking about language use and identity that avoids foundationalist categories, suggesting that identities are formed in the linguistic performance rather than pregiven. Such a view of language identity also helps us to see how subjectivities are called into being and sedimented over time through regulated language acts. This further provides the ground for considering languages themselves from an anti-foundationalist perspective, whereby language use is an act of identity that calls that language into being. And performativity, particularly in its relationship to notions of performance, opens up ways to understand how languages, identities and futures are refashioned.
Pennycook, A.D. 2004, 'The myth of English as an international language',
English in Australia, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 26-32.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2003, 'Global Englishes, rip slyme, and performativity',
Journal Of Sociolinguistics, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 513-533.
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Publisher's site Pennycook, A.D. 2003, 'Global noise and global englishes',
Cultural Studies Review, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 192-200.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. & Coutand-Marin, S. 2003, 'Teaching English as a missionary language',
Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 337-354.
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Publisher's site Appleby, R.J., Copley, K., Sithirajvongsa, S. & Pennycook, A.D. 2002, 'Language in Development Constrained: Three Contexts',
TESOL Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 323-346.
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Publisher's site Pennycook, A.D. 2002, 'Mother tongues, governmentality and protectionism',
International Journal of the Sociology of Language, vol. 154, no. 1, pp. 11-28.
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Publisher's site Pennycook, A.D. 2002, 'Turning English inside out',
Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 25-43.
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UTSiResearch Pennycook, A.D. 2008, 'Multilithic English(es) and language ideologies',
Language in Society, vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 435-444.
View description>> With the growth of Asia's manufacturing and service industries, the prediction that China and India, respectively, will have the first and third largest global economies within 30 years, a population that comprises over 50% of the world's people, and massive English language programs throughout the region, it is no surprise that the role of English in Asia has become a major concern. At a recent (2006) Asia TEFL conference in Japan, the notions of Asian English(es), along with Asian methodologies and Asian knowledge, were topics of considerable discussion. The size and diversity of Asia, however, makes it a very difficult entity to define: The Asia TEFL conference included delegates from Israel and Iran, and two of the books under review here, Braj Kachru's Asian Englishes: Beyond the canon(AEBC) and Yamuna Kachru & Cecil Nelson's World Englishes in Asian contexts(WEAC), include (with identical maps) Australia and New Zealand. In some ways, the idea of Asia is defined by what it is not: Europe and North America. It is also not, of course, South America or Africa, though with WEACcontaining a chapter on African Englishes (as well as African American Vernacular English, or AAVE), it seems as if they might be allowed in. It is clear nevertheless that various notions of Asia ? as an economic zone, as a cultural entity, and as a user of a type or types of English ? are widely used. We need to take the notion of Asia and Asian English(es) seriously, if only to try to understand what is meant by Braj Kachru's explanation that AEBCis ?essentially about the Asianness in Asian Englishes and their gradual, yet marked, distinctiveness?
Thompson, C.H. & Pennycook, A.D. 2008, 'A question of dialogues: Authorship, authority, plagiarism', Education Canada, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 20-23.
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